Mortification and Flagellation: Christian Discipline Throughout History
A discipline is a small scourge (whip) used as an instrument of penance and flagellation by members of some Christian denominations (including Anglicans, Lutherans and Roman Catholics among others) in the spiritual discipline known as mortification of the flesh .
Scourging with discipline as an act of penance finds particularly strong expression in the Christian tradition, where it is deeply rooted in theology and spiritual practice. This practice dates back to the early centuries of Christianity, drawing inspiration from biblical teachings and the examples of Christian martyrs who willingly endured suffering to bear witness to their faith.
Biblical and Patristic Origins
In the Bible, physical suffering is often seen as a means of purification and redemption. The Old Testament contains examples of voluntary suffering to atone for sins, while the New Testament emphasizes the sufferings of Christ. Christ's Passion, his scourging and his crucifixion served as models for later penitential practices. Early Church Fathers, such as Tertullian and Origen, discussed the value of bodily suffering as a means of imitating Christ and participating in his Passion.
Ancient instruments of penance including disciplines for sale on the Relics.es website
The Middle Ages and the Monastic Orders
In the Middle Ages, flagellation took a central place in Christian spirituality, particularly within monastic orders. Monks and nuns used flagellation as a form of personal discipline to strengthen their devotion and atone for their sins. One of the most notable examples is that of Saint Dominic, the founder of the Dominican order, who practiced flagellation to reinforce his devotion and humility.
Medieval religious orders institutionalized flagellation. The Cistercians, for example, incorporated this practice into their regime of daily penance. Franciscans and Dominicans also adopted this practice, encouraging their members to use discipline to mortify the flesh and strengthen their spiritual commitment.
Discipline dating from the 18th century on Relics.es
The Flagellants of the 13th and 14th Centuries
One of the most spectacular manifestations of penitential flagellation took place during the great pandemics of the Middle Ages, notably the Black Death. The flagellants, a secular movement that appeared in the 13th century, traveled the cities and countryside publicly flagellating themselves to atone for the sins of humanity and implore divine mercy. These processions were often accompanied by songs, prayers and preaching calling for repentance.
Flagellants believed that voluntary suffering could attract divine grace and avert calamities. Although this movement was sometimes condemned by the Church due to its excesses and heretical tendencies, it nevertheless left a lasting mark on European religious culture, illustrating the depth of belief in the redemptive value of physical suffering. .
The Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation
During the Renaissance, flagellation continued to be practiced, although often in a more discreet and private manner. The Catholic Counter-Reformation, in response to the Protestant Reformation, reaffirmed the importance of penance and bodily mortification. Influential spiritual figures like Saint Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Jesuits, integrated bodily discipline into their spiritual exercises. Saint Ignatius advocated the moderate use of flagellation as a means of controlling passions and strengthening personal discipline.
Saints and Mystics
Many Christian saints and mystics practiced flagellation as an act of intense devotion. Saint Catherine of Siena, for example, regularly flagellated herself as a sign of repentance and solidarity with the sufferings of Christ. Saint Teresa of Avila, although she criticized excesses, also recognized the value of bodily mortification in the spiritual life.
These practices were often accompanied by visions and mystical experiences, where physical suffering was seen as a means of transcending the body and achieving a deeper union with God. Flagellation thus became an act of personal sacrifice, a means of actively participating in the Passion of Christ and purifying the soul of imperfections.
Modern Practice
In modern times, flagellation as a penitential practice has declined, although some religious communities continue to practice it. Today, bodily discipline is often approached in a more symbolic or spiritual way, emphasizing inner repentance and personal transformation rather than physical suffering.
However, pilgrimages and penitential processions, such as those observed during Holy Week in Spain and Latin America, show that the tradition of public flagellation continues in some Christian cultures. These rituals, although sometimes controversial, testify to the persistence of the belief in the expiatory value of voluntary suffering.
Flagellation as an act of penance in Christianity is a practice deeply rooted in theology and history of the Church. It reflects a constant quest for purification, devotion and imitation of Christ. Throughout the ages, this practice has taken various forms, ranging from spectacular public rituals to acts of personal and intimate devotion. Despite cultural changes and contemporary criticism, scourging remains a testimony to the complexity and depth of the human quest for redemption and proximity to the divine.
Many disciplines include seven ropes, symbolizing the seven deadly sins and the seven virtues. They also often contain three knots on each rope, representing the number of days that Jesus Christ remained in the tomb after bearing the sins of humanity. Those who use the discipline often do so during the penitential season of Lent, but others use it on other occasions, and even daily.
In the Bible, Saint Paul writes: “I punish my body and make it a slave, so that when I have proclaimed to others, I myself may not be disqualified” (1 Corinthians 9:27 NRSV). Christians who use discipline do so as a means of participating in the mortification of the flesh to aid in the process of sanctification; they also inflict agony on themselves to suffer as Christ and the martyrs suffered. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, when Christian monks mortified the flesh as a spiritual discipline, the name of the object they used to practice this also became known as discipline. By the 11th century, the use of discipline for Christians who sought to practice mortification of the flesh became pervasive throughout Christendom.
In the Roman Catholic Church, discipline is used by some austere Catholic religious orders. The Cistercians, for example, use discipline to mortify their flesh after praying Compline. The Capuchins have a ritual observed three times a week, in which the psalms Miserere Mei Deus and De Profundis are recited while the friars flagellate themselves with discipline. Saints like Dominic Loricatus, Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi, among others, used discipline on themselves to aid in their sanctification.
Constituents of some Anglican religious orders practice self-flagellation with discipline. In Anglicanism, the use of discipline has become "fairly common" among many members of the Tractarian movement. Martin Luther, German reformer, practiced mortification of the flesh through fasting and self-flagellation, even sleeping in a stone cell without a covering. The Congregationalist writer and leader within the evangelical Christian movement, Sarah Osborn, practiced self-flagellation in order to "remind him of his continuing sin, depravity and baseness in the eyes of God".
